Gaining And Maintaining Airworthiness Engineering Essay

Gaining And Maintaining Airworthiness Engineering Essay Aircraft design process involved in varied disciplines such as aerodynamics, structures, flight mechanics etc. Therefore, for an aircraft to become operational it is essential to demonstrate that the construction and design of the aircraft can comply with the requirements applicable and such verification and validation evidence required to be delegated to the relevant authorities. This report introduces Airworthiness and provides the reader the framework involved in gaining airworthiness and how to maintain it subsequently. Introduction Consideration of airworthiness policies has its origins since the early days of military flying. But aircraft design data has been recorded prior to 1910 for balloons and the Royal Aircraft Factory has produced a design requirement document in 1916. The Aerial Navigation Act that is sanction by the Home Office in 1911 to ban flying in populated areas is an early example of safety regulation. Airworthiness Department has been established decade later by the Royal Aircraft Factory (as part of the Air Ministry), which is the beginning of procedures for company design approvals and approved data. Aircraft airworthiness means compliance with applicable aviation authorities regulations that defines the minimum safety level of the aircraft, of the passengers transported and the over flown territories. When designed and built according to applicable requirements, When operated within its intended environment and within its quantified and declared limitations, And maintained in accordance with procedures acceptable to the responsible Authority. The European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Regulation 216/2008, Article 5, 2(c) defines the airworthiness as; Each aircraft shall be issued with an individual certificate of airworthiness when it is shown that it conforms to the type design approved in its type-certificate and that relevant documentation, inspections and tests demonstrate the aircraft is in condition for safe operation The Airworthiness is a collective responsibility of operators, authorities, manufactures and maintenance organisations. An airworthy aircraft is one where the likelihood of any incident or accident as a result of malfunction, performance or handling of the aircraft is kept to acceptable levels. The only real measure of airworthiness in use is given by tracking and analyzing incidents and accidents. The remaining sections will discuss the essence of Gaining and Maintaining Airworthiness. Figure 01: Airworthiness Collective Responsibilities Implementation of Airworthiness Authority (EASA) confidence that the design of a product complies with the applicable requirements based on Certification of the organisation (IR 21 DOA) Certification of the design of products (CS 25 TC) DO Approval According to European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), Design Organisation Approval (DOA) requirements Implementing Rule (IR) part 21 (published as annex to European Commission Regulation (EC) No 1702/2003) includes procedural requirements applicable either to the industry (Section A) or to the Competent Authorities (Section B) but Part 21 does not include provisions to delegate EASA authority and / or signature to individuals. Certification of aircraft and related products, parts and appliances, and of design and production organisations Organisations must demonstrate following key elements in order to obtain DO Approval. Design Assurance System Handbook Right People Terms of Approval Obligations of the holder Figure 02 DOA Key Elements Design Organisation Approval (DOA) Organisation Structure Following diagram illustrates a simplified organisation structure demonstrating the essential elements in an aircraft design and manufacturing organisation. Figure 03: Design Organisation Structure Chief Executive Officer (CEO): Responsible for appropriate functioning of the work place by ensuring availability of required resources. Designated Certification Specialist (DCS): Airworthiness specialist nominated for a given discipline (ATA or Sub-ATA level or for Approved Manuals) to carry out the certification tasks, in particular to manage the compliance demonstration activities for their domain. Part of the airworthiness function and act under the control of Product Integrity. Certification Manager (CM) Certification panel leaders for their area of competence, Participate in the development of new certification strategies The CM is the interface with Aviation Authorities at panel level for primary TC, foreign certification / validation activities and for allocated major changes. Chief Airworthiness Engineer (CAE) Responsible for leading and coordinating the certification and airworthiness activities for the programme. Supported by a team usually called the CAE team composed of: A Type Certification Manger (TCM) An Individual Aircraft Certification Manager (IACM) A Continued Airworthiness Manager (CAM) Type Certification Type certification is the process demonstrating that the design of an aircraft complies with the applicable aviation requirements. Certification process could be a new type certificate new aircraft (ex. Airbus A380), Amended Type certification model or derivative (ex: Airbus A350 1000) and significant major changes to the type design (ex. A330-200 Passenger to Freighter) To grant and EASA Type Certificate, aircraft manufacture shall obtain first a DOA (Design Organisation Approval) covering the relevant product (aircraft type) and also shall demonstrate its capability to design, certify and ensure the continued airworthiness of its products in accordance with the certification specification (CS-25) and Environmental protection (CS-34, CS-36) requirements. To manufacture and release to service series aircraft, manufacture must then obtain a POA (Production Organisation Approval) and establish relationship between DOA POA. Flight Test Flight testing process could be potentially very risky and extremely expensive due to unforeseen problem s result in loss of life (both crew and people on the ground) and damage to the aircraft. Due to this reasons modern flight testing is one of the most safety conscious operations. Typically there are two types of flight test programs, military and commercial. There is a significant difference between military and commercial flight testing where commercial test programs are carried out to certify the aircraft meets all required safety and performance requirements where as military programs involved in aircraft manufactures designing and building aircraft to government contracts to meet specific mission capabilities. Initiation of flight test preparations for both commercial and military aircraft commence well before the aircraft is ready to fly, although due to the fact that the government is funding the military projects, involvement of military flight testing is commence much ear ly-on in the design and testing process. Historical Data Analysis According to historical evidence, operational and airframe related risk of a serious accident causes is approximately one per million flight hours but failure problems occurred by aircraft systems problems is about 10 percent of this total amount. Therefore, it is reasonable to argue that systems faults should not allowed serious accidents and it is therefore possible for a new design to change the probability of such a serious accident not to be greater than one per ten million flight hours (1 x 10-7). But it is not possible to identify whether the target can be met until all the aircraft systems has been numerically collectively analysed. Due to this reason its assumed that there are about 100 potential failure conditions present arbitrarily which could prevent safe flight and landing of the aircraft. By sharing out equally the target allowable risk (x 10-7) equally among these conditions risk allocation result in not greater than 1 x 10-9 to each. Therefore the upper risk limit for failure conditions would be 1 x 10-9 for each hour of flight which approximates probability value for the term Extremely Improbable. Analytic techniques Various analytical techniques have been developed in line with the above topic to assist Airworthiness Authority and the applicant to carry out a safety analysis, which could benefit systematic qualitative analysis. This technique also important for analyst to perform quantitative assessment when required. The Advisory Material Joint (AMJ) identifies both qualitative and quantitative analytical approaches which could used to support JAA personal or assist applicant to determine the compliance with the requirement. And it also provides guidance for determining if or when a particular analysis to be conducted. The intended requirement of the analytical tools is supplement but not to replace operational and engineering judgement. Legal Issues To have a basic understanding of the legal requirement is vital for aviation professionals such as pilots, mechanics, air traffic controllers and executives. National and international laws or regulations regulate all aspects of civil air transportation. To ensure the effectiveness of the legal framework and enforceability of safety aspects, the following basic groups of regulations have been developed. Airworthiness Regulations to define: Applicable procedures, and Minimum safety, technical and performance requirements to be realised and maintain in the aircraft design. Ex: EASA Part 21 (aircraft certification procedures), Part M and Part 145 (aircraft maintenance) CS-25 (design code for large aircraft) Operational regulations: to define the basic rules air traffic has to follow and the minimum requirements for certain kinds of operations, for the aircraft and the person or the organisation. Ex: EU-OPS1 Commercial Air Transportation After an accident there is two main investigations (technical legal proceedings) will be conducted. Legal proceedings consist with; Civil proceedings which involved in civil claims for damages by victims and/or their relatives, Commercial proceedings which involved in claims for damages by customer and/or its insurer (Aircraft repair / loss, Reduction in aircraft residual value, Loss of revenue) and finally Criminal prosecution, in case of death / serious injury, in certain jurisdictions (ex: France, Germany). Continued Airworthiness According to ICAO Doc No 9760-2001 continued Airworthiness defined as The processes that ensure, at any time in its life, an aircraft complies with the technical conditions fixed to the issue of the Certificate of Airworthiness and is in a condition for safe operation. And recommends Contracting states are required to have a system that ensures aircraft are in a condition for safe operation. F. Florio (2006) stated that safety is the most important thing which has to be ensuring every time in every flight operations and all the airplanes must be in an air worthy state which is suitable for fly. In other words all the aircrafts must achieve and perform all the procedures in the Airworthiness Directive manuals. Furthermore, Florio (2006) also mentioned that continued airworthiness can be rely on two factors Organisation operators Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance can be explained as alterations, inspections, replacements of parts of the aircraft. This can be done by taking a record entry for each event such as replacement of LRUs (Line replacement units). According to Florio (2006), Maintenance refers to as preventive maintenance, alterations and repairs and introduction of airworthiness directive and also he stated that airworthiness is rely on the maintenance programmes , which also establish the replacement of time change items , the overhaul engines, propellers and various parts of appliances. Florio mentioned that as the part of the product type certifications of aircraft airworthiness authorities requires instructions for continued airworthiness thus these instructions can be identified as the fundamental tools of the maintenance because they are the basic maintenance programmes. These maintenance programmes must cater the requirements of operational and maintenance standards. According to EASA Maintenance programme; Every aircraft shall be maintained in accordance with the maintenance programmes approved by the competent authority, which shall be periodically reviewed and amended accordingly. The maintenance programme and any subsequent amendments shall be approved by the competent authority The maintenance programmes must establish compliance with; Instructions for continuing airworthiness issued by the type certificate and the supplementary type certificate holder Instructions issued by the complement authority Instructions issued by the owner or the operator and approved by the competent authority. Repairs Repair process involves different organisations where, when the products are not with aircraft manufacture, continuing airworthiness is governed by the state of registry or the responsibilities are spread out in organisations. Part 21A subpart M states the repair procedural requirements for certification. Under Part 21 subpart M: Elimination of damage (21A.431 b) Unrepaired damages (21A.445 a) Out of Part 21 subpart M Replacement without design activity (21A.431c) Repairs design from an approved manual (GM 21A.431 a) Following diagrams illustrates the Airbus repairing process. Figure 04: Airbus Repairing Process The Structure Repair Manual (SRM) describes general repair practices, materials and typical repairs, allowed damages, which are considered applicable to standard repairs. Its approved by aircraft manufacture under DOR privilege. Modifications Changes made to a particular aircraft after the issue of the airworthiness certificate is a modification. This could include changes to the structures, systems, powerplants, propellers etc Furthermore, substitution of one type for another also considered as a modification. Any modification requires approval from the Civil Aviation Authority directly or via an approved organisation. During a design modification, details of the change must be given to the authority at early stage where then the modification is classified as minor or major medication according to the nature of the investigation. If the outcome of an investigation requires amendments to the Certificate of Airworthiness or Flight Manual, authority may require following major modification procedures. Incidents and Accidents Flight safety experts believe that series of events leads to incidents and accidents. Accidents During the operation of an aircraft, result in occurrence associated with a person being fatally or seriously injured from the time any person boards to the aircraft with intention of flight until the time all persons disembarked. Incidents Other than accidents incidents also occurrences which relate to the operation of the aircraft or could affect the safety of its operation. Aging Aircraft Civil Aviation authority has defined Aging aircrafts as An operational aircraft approaching the end of its design life assumptions (Alder P. 2005). Aging aircraft can also be called as an older aircraft as well. Since the aircraft are manufacture to provide long lasting services for so many years, all the aircraft must be in an airworthy state and have to be safe to fly. Thus maintenance programmes must be carried out to maintain the aircraft and also aircraft must be operated according to the manufacturers recommendation. Florio F. (2006) stated that, older aircraft require additional care and the maintenance programmes must be carried out in a more specific way than the recently manufactured aircraft. And also he stated that due to the fatigue, accidental damage and also due to the environmental deterioration more inspection in the components of the structure must require in maintenance programmes. So to maintain airworthiness in older aircrafts manufacturers of the flight has to provide operators with the specific programs. In older aircrafts normally each of the aeroplane components have to undergo some of the repairs, overhauls, inspection maintenance, preventive maintenance and some replacements of components of the aircraft. Maintenance records have to be update regularly by the operator. Florio F. (2006) states that between operator of the aircraft, manufacturer and also the authority there should be an open communication system. Furthermore he states that once a problem occur the operator or the owner of the aircraft must inform it to the manufacturer and then manufacturer has to prepare the recommendations and has to update the appropriate programmes of continued air worthiness. After examination of those maintenance programmes the authorities will approve those. Role of the Regulator Airworthiness programmes consist of three main roles. Regulator Implementer Investigator Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) are examples for the regulation authorities. These authorities generate and distribute the regulations for aircraft operations for aviation industry. Civil Aviation Authority is the UKs independent specialist regulator. Their main responsibility is to provide world leading air safety environment in the aviation industry. Aircraft licensing, maintenance of specific airworthiness management systems and economic regulations, consumer protection, policies for airspace and setting up national safety standards can be taken as key role of CAA. Regulators involved in few or many roles as follows: Setting up the civil aviation standards and ensure they are achieved. Regulates and encourages airlines, airports and national air traffic services economic activities etc Manages the principal travel protection scheme. Ensure the airspace is a common place for all users by bringing civil and military interests together. Advise the government on aviation issues. Represents consumer interests Conduct scientific and economic research. Provide specialist services by producing statistical data. Conclusion Recommendation Aircraft airworthiness means compliance with applicable aviation authorities regulations that defines the minimum safety level of the aircraft, of the passengers transported and the over flown territories and when designed and built according to applicable requirements, when operated within its intended environment and within its quantified and declared limitations and maintained in accordance with procedures acceptable to the responsible Authority. Therefore, The Airworthiness is a collective responsibility of operators, authorities, manufactures and maintenance organisations.

History of the Periodic Table :: essays research papers

Things are very different from each other, and can be broken down into small groups inside itself, which was then noticed early by people, and Greek thinkers, about 400BC. Which just happened to use words like "element', and `atom' to describe the many different parts and even the smallest parts of matter. These ideas were around for over 2000 years while ideas such as `Elements' of Earth, Fire, Air, and Water to explain `world stuff' came and went. Much later, Boyle, an experimenter like Galileo and Bacon, was influenced much by Democritus, Gassendi, and Descartes, which lent much important weight to the atomic theory of matter in the 1600s. Although it was Lavoisier who had divided the very few elements known in the 1700's into four different classes, and then John Dalton made atoms even more believable, telling everyone that the mass of an atom was it's most important property. Then in the early 1800's Dobereiner noted that the similar elements often had relative atomic mass es, and DeChancourtois made a cylindrical table of elements to display the periodic reoccurrence of properties. Cannizaro then determined atomic weights for the 60 or so elements known in the 1860s, and then a table was arranged by Newlands, with the many elements given a serial number in order of their atomic weights, of course beginning with Hydrogen. That made it clear that "the eighth element, starting from a given one, is a kind of a repeat of the first", which Newlands called the Law of Octaves. Then both Meyer and Mendeleyev built periodic tables alone, Meyer more impressed by the periodicity of physical properties, while Mendeleyev was more interested in the chemical properties. Then Mendeleyev had published his periodic table and his law in 1869 and forecasted the properties of the missing elements, and chemists then began to be grateful for it when the discovery of elements was predicted by the table that had taken place. Although, periodic tables have always been related to the way scientists thought about the shape and structure of the atom, and has changed over the years exactly for that reason. The modern periodic table is very much like a later table by Meyer, but arranged, by Mendeleev’s, but it had to be according to the size of the atomic weight. The only thing though that was made by Mendeleev’s was Group 0, which was then added by Ramsay.

To What Extenet Has the Labour Party Abandoned Its Socialist Routes?

To What Extent has the Labour Party abandoned its socialist routes? The definition of socialism is ‘An economic, social and political doctrine which expresses the struggle for the equal distribution of wealth by eliminating private property and the exploitative ruling class’. In some ways it could be said that New Labour hasn’t abandoned its socialist routes. For example, New Labour’s idea of a minimum wage very much bares a socialist style of view, as this is seen as fair, equal and is a redistribution of income.The old Labour party very much believed in the redistribution of wealth, as this was seen as helping out the less fortunate people of Britain. In early November 2012, Mr. Miliband stepped forward in support of a rise in the minimum wage, to what he calls the â€Å"living wage† New Labour still share many of the same ideas that old Labour once believed. For example, old Labour believed that everyone in the country should work together and sho uld forget about social classes, and new Labour believes that poverty gaps should be smaller, and classes should work together.The idea of Ed Miliband taking the Disraeli slogan â€Å"One Nation† shows a real reversion back to the old ways of typical socialism, and the idea that Britain will be united. It is in conventional terms this is about being more left wing than Tony Blair – keener on taxes and regulation whilst more hostile to the private sector. Also, new and old Labour both believe in public expenditure on a large scale. This is to give the nation equal opportunities and the best possible standards of living, arguing the point of new Labour still sticking to its socialist routes.Old Labour believed that taxation should be high on the rich people of the country, as they have more money to give to the country to benefit the less affluent citizens of Britain. New Labour believes in less radical taxation, however stealth taxes are used to also benefit the country as well as the rise to the 50% taxation for anyone earning over ? 100,000 introduced in the April 2009 budget. This shows that both eras of the party believed in taxation benefiting the less ‘fortunate’ members of the country.New Labour is seen to be ‘expanding’ on old Labour’s views and adjusting them to fit in with Britain’s social aspects. For example, old Labour believed in free education from 5-18 years. However New Labour want 3-4 year olds to have free nursery education, something that wasn’t even around when Old Labour was still existent. Old Labour morals disagree with the idea of entrenched privileges toward education, as the state should create conditions that will give maximum opportunity to all sections of society.Whereas New Labour does not have a problem with public schools and they have the view that if people are prepared to spend more money on giving their children more benefits then so be it. New Labour still have ma ny socialist views such as the idea of the UK being fairer and more prosperous than it was a decade ago, and it having the highest employment rate in the G7, and also that the government lifted 600,000 children out of poverty in 2007. This shows that the New Labour government is still keeping in mind the working class people of Britain, showing us that Labour still share some socialist views.However, in some ways it can be shown that New Labour has detached itself from its Socialist routes. This can be in the different views on nationalisation. Old Labour believed that big companies, like the railway, the telephone, and electricity firms are owned by the country as a whole instead of privately by businessmen and this worked by the public owning shares in the companies. Whereas new Labour share the view that the idea of Private Finance Initiatives (PFI), they welcome private funds into national institutions such as hospitals and schools etc.However In 2008 New Labour nationalized Nor then Rock, and this was met with cries of outrage from its shareholders. The famous joke made by Labour MPs was â€Å"At last we’re enacting the 1983 manifesto† and â€Å"one down, 249 to go†. It was however embarrassing for the government of the time, who were keen to avoid nationalisation of any kind When old Labour first became a political party, they were to represent the working class people of the country, which were linked to trade unions.The unions had realized that the liberals and conservatives would not represent them, so they looked to Labour to represent skilled workers. The Labour party established a wide range of trade unions, socialists, Christians, Fabians and Marxists, this provided key amounts of support for the then liberal party. The common old Labour views consisted of, forgetting class, which meant that the country should work together to earn the best way of living for everyone. Old Labour believed that the working class should have their own say, which was to be non-violent.The idea of collectivism was a view shared by old Labour, which means to work as a group rather than as individuals, which links to the view of forgetting class. The same cannot be said for New Labour. Blair had a big focus on backing a sweeping overhaul of party funding which curbed the influence of the unions over the Labour party. Ed Miliband, who’s close victory for the leadership of the Labour Party over his brother was arguably due to the support of the Trade Unions, decided to back the Conservative government’s pay freeze in the public sector.This angered Trade Unions greatly, and Miliband did it to show he wasn’t going to be ruled by Trade Unions. Old Labour have the idea that free enterprise (An economic system characterized by private ownership of property and productive resources, the profit motive to stimulate production, competition to ensure efficiency, and the forces of supply and demand to direct the producti on and distribution of goods and services. ) will do nothing good for the working class. However new Labour believe that free enterprise is a good idea as the workers will benefit massively from this.New Labour is also broadly pro-Europe, and wants to lead the country to become more involved in the EU. Shadow Foreign Secretary Douglas Alexander said in November 2011 â€Å"It is still my view that the Labour Government took the right decision on the Lisbon Treaty† However, the old labour view was that the EU doesn’t have the same values as Britain. This is a prime example of how new labour have strayed away from old labour and are becoming less socialist as a result of this, because these views are radically different from each other, showing that new labour may have differed from old labour views.There is also an argument that says that not only has New Labour abandoned its Socialist routes, but New Labour has been accused of being far too right wing on some policies. For example, in December 1997, 47 Labour MPs rebelled when the government carried through the previous administration's plans to cut the benefits paid to new single-parents. Tuition fees for university students were also introduced with no debate within the Labour Party itself. The government also promoted wider use of Public Private Partnerships and the Private Finance Initiative, which were opposed particularly by trade unions as a form of privatisation.Another example of Labour appearing too right wing is that the New Labour government has been closer to corporate business interests than any previous Labour government. This idea was opposed by old Labour views, and dramatically shows how different new Labour is now from when the party first started out. Since 1997 Labour's economic policies have sought to take a middle way between the more centralised socialist approach of past Labour governments and the free market approach of the Conservative government from 1979 to 1997. One o f the most popular policies introduced was Britain's first National Minimum Wage Act.This act was a massive revelation, and shows us that Labour still shares a socialist way of thinking, even in this modern day and age. In conclusion, it is fair to say that New Labour has abandoned its Socialist routes, but this can be attributed to Politics slipping into much more of a battle for the central spectrum of politics. The core vote now lies between the left and right, and to gain the power of government, the Labour Party has had to juggle appealing to its dye in the wool support as well as the core vote. Jono Davis

George Orwell s The Slaughter House Five - 1302 Words

Views on War in Vonnegut s Slaughter House Five Many people returned from World War II with disturbing images forever stuck in their heads. Others returned and went crazy and terrors faced. The protagonist in Slaughter-House Five, Billy Pilgrim, has to deal with some of these things along with many other complications in his life. Slaughter House Five (1968), by Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., is an anti-war novel about a man’s life before, after and during the time he spent fighting in World War II. While Billy is trying to escape from behind enemy lines, he is captured and imprisoned in a German slaughterhouse. The author tells of Billy’s terrible experiences there. After the war, Billy marries and goes to school to become an optometrist. During†¦show more content†¦There is an old general there who was a teacher before joining in the war efforts. One day, in a conversation with Billy and another older man in the hospital, the general starts to talk about what he thinks of the war. He says, You know-- we’ve had to imagine the war here, and we have imagined that it was being fought by aging men like ourselves. We had forgotten that wars were fought by babies. When I saw those freshly shaved faces, it was a shock. ‘My God, my God----’ I said to myself, ‘It’s the Children’s Crusade’ (p. 106). This general feels that war is nothing but babies being murdered by one another. He is disturbed by the thought of war and the fact that so many young people are dying for its cause. Billy, the protagonist of this novel, also has bitter feelings about war. While he is in the zoo on the planet of Tralfamadore, he is able to communicate with the aliens. In a conversation with them, he says that he is from a planet that has been engaged in senseless slaughter since the beginning of time (p. 116). This senseless slaughter that he is referring to is war. Billly himself was in the war, but obviously thinks that there is no reason for it and by no means should it ever be necessary. In the same conversation with the aliens, Billy goes on to explain some of the most disturbing images he had seen in the war. He says, I myself have seen the bodies of school girls who were boiled alive in a water tower by my own countrymenShow MoreRelatedHow Does Read Literature Like A Professor1814 Words   |  8 PagesHow To Read Literature Like a Professor By Thomas C. Foster 1. Chapter 1- Every Trip Is A Quest (Except When It’s Not) a. The five aspects of the quest are the quester, a place to go, a stated reason to go there, challenges and trials on the way, and the real reason to go there. When I read The Secret Life Of the Bees the quester was Lily, she was looking to go to Tiburon to find out more information about her mother and the past. On her journey she runs away from her father, falls in love, and